[1] I use exchange theory since it is better suited to my purposes than Collins rather short discussion of power and status rituals (2002: 111-114; 348-349). As we have seen with the Trump-base, many of these people state I want my country back and Make America Great again. While one might self-righteously declare them as unjustified, they do not agree, and they are a political force to be reckoned with. Symbolic interactionism is a sociological theory that emphasizes the role of symbols, language, and meaning in shaping social interactions and the development of social norms and institutions. It is a form of group exchange where one person gives to another, who then in turn gives to a third person. Following Goffman and bridging Mead and Athens, there seem to be two modes of behavior: (1) a general form of sociation where people generally intend to get along with each other as friends and associates, and (2) a strategic form of interaction that looks more like bargaining behavior where one has a sense of seeking specific monetary or other gains. In one way or another, George convinces his three brothers and one sister to also become personal injury lawyers. Helen Hilton engaged in the least bridging capital to higher social classes. Further examples can be seen in the development of trade unions. They have deference and may have shame, but they seek to avoid these emotions by building negative subcultures where they are accepted with their deficiencies. 202 Patterson Office Tower In generalized exchange, there are five different types (Ekeh 1974: 50; Janoski 1998: 82-85). In a sense, they are saying I want my social mobility back or I dont want others to be rising above me with their own social mobility. On the other hand, those on the bottom may make the claim that upward mobility has no effect on others at the top, but relationally, this is not the case. Social exchange is more generalized exchange as one might pursue in ones family or friend network. The family can also be a source of conflict, including physical violence and emotional cruelty, for its own members. A major difference between the two concerns how strategic people can be. There are also many examples of people gaining great wealth or political influence through more restricted exchange. But until that day, accept this justice as a gift on my daughters wedding day.. Political sociology can use these exchange processes to show how various political interactions can be negotiated. Differentiating these relationships gives meaning to positive and negative types of generalized others in the social mobility process. In row 1 (items 1, 2 and 3) high status persons who feel that their status is based on ability engage in self-justified othering where they are validated, and they develop powerful virtual selves. In network terms, these processes are more reliant on strong ties than weak ties (Granovetter 1973). This is when direct reciprocity is not expected except in a rather indirect way. Her idea for social mobility is to work herself at the telephone company and maintain kinship and neighborly social relations. The end result is a more nuanced and extended theory of power in society with elements of motivation at the individual and group level. While they may have their differences, they show a lot of similarities when comparing certain traits within a certain theory including the economic inequality, deviance and gender as discussed above. One could make a similar comment about the Bush family as a political dynasty (Baker 2008). In table 5.1, I present eleven different exchange relationships divided between restricted and generalized exchange, but I will only go over the main points. 2014: 185-86) speaks of a negotiated order and mentions bargaining. The daughter complains to her grandmother, who has been an underpaid domestic for many decades to a prominent old and respected family. Symbolic Interactionism As discussed in the opening module, W.E.B. Schwalbe et al. Symbolic interaction has a particular weakness concerning a concept critical to political sociology and that is the concept of power. In row 1 (items 1, 2 and 3) high status persons who feel that their status is based on ability engage in self-justified othering where they are validated, and they develop powerful virtual selves. And you know that the funeral director will not only do it to repay his debt, but if he does not, the Don will most certainly take a pound of flesh. It is a form of group exchange where one person gives to another, who then in turn gives to a third person. Thus, social mobility is not just achieving skills by merit, but it is also about self-work or personhood about countering and converting elite processes of oppressive othering with generalized others. The two types are when the groups overlap or they do not. Afterwards, he says that no payment is necessary, but: Someday, and that day may never come, I will call upon you to do a service for me. Symbolic Interactionism Whereas the functionalist and conflict perspectives are macro approaches, symbolic interactionism is a micro approach that focuses on the interaction of individuals and on how they interpret their interaction. Restricted and generalized exchange relate to how generalized others are constructed. But until that day, accept this justice as a gift on my daughters wedding day.. Michael Schwalbe and five others present a theory of critical interactionism on how inequalities are created in society, and these can also be related to social mobility. Exchange theory then leads to bargaining processes, which will be discussed more fully in chapter 9 on the macro-level. Constructivism and Symbolic Interactionism. The two types of behavior have two different types of exchange. After a successful business and political career, he promoted his sons as politicians. But it doesn't just stop there. When people engage in sociation often with generalized exchange they are interacting according to the process of sociation. But when people engage in strategic interaction they are following interaction through power, which may be conscious by tough negotiators or may have been socialized into them through violentization. And further, there are processes in between. Differentiating these relationships gives meaning to positive and negative types of generalized others in the social mobility process. Among her husbands business associates, it consists of being the life of the party and maintaining long-term friendships with business associates. Also, Richard Titmus in the The Gift Relationship (1997) describes the difference between exchanging blood based on it being a gift or being paid for the donation. Thus, the social mobility process is not just a reaction to blockages, but it is a creative process of external valuation through generalized others, and internal identification through self-processes. Consistent with its micro orientation, symbolic interactionism tries to understand stratification and thus poverty by looking at people's interaction and understandings in their daily lives. According to symbolic interaction theory, people are capable of change: when we make a mistaken assumption, our interactions with others can help to correct our misconceptions. All too often, the processes of the generalized other are portrayed as supportive othering such as mothers and fathers interacting with their children in the socialization process. The same would apply to group exchange. Economists would like to apply restricted exchange to all types of social exchange (e.g., Gary Beckers rational account of marriages and partnerships, and also sociobiological theories that see couples maximizing their gene pools for reproduction). Much of this type of exchange is linked to rational action as per Max Webers concepts of rationality. Oppressive othering penetrates the generalized other of Mead and indicates that people may promote or justify their positions in society by providing looking glass-self messages to others that they are inferior, inept, unworthy or otherwise inferior to themselves. Following Goffman and bridging Mead and Athens, there seem to be two modes of behavior: (1) a general form of sociation where people generally intend to get along with each other as friends and associates, and (2) a strategic form of interaction that looks more like bargaining behavior where one has a sense of seeking specific monetary or other gains. Among her kin, she aims to keep the family together for over 50 years with parties with over 60 people. It integrates a bargaining theory of power into symbolic interactionism, and alters the symbolic interactionist discussion of power by putting it into a context of social exchange and types of social mobility. Ones and the others alternatives are measured by the number of alternatives times their value, which is the value of the alternative times its probability. This type of exchange is favored by rational choice proponents and economists who see it as the paramount exchange that exists in markets. In row 6 (items 16, 17 and 18) lower status persons with perhaps certain abilities and talents that they themselves recognize view their low status as being due to discrimination and bias coming from higher status persons. The daughter complains to her grandmother, who has been an underpaid domestic for many decades to a prominent old and respected family. However, in this book, I find that they can be profitably put together or synthesized. Lexington KY, 40506-0027859.257.8354, Power and Inequality in Symbolic Interaction, Online Graduate Certificate in Diversity and Inclusion, Social Psychology of Citizens and Subjects: Generalized Others and the Pathways to Inequality and Social Structure, Symbolic Interactionist Theory Revised for Political Sociology, Interactional Ritual Chains and Differential Association, From Generalized Others to Social Networks and Groups to Social Structure and Culture. The low-status people will have negative generalized others vis--vis the high-status othering persons. Social exchange theory and symbolic interactionism are often thought of polar opposites, and in some ways they are. Inequality and the Self: Exploring Connections from an Interactionist Perspective Leon Anderson Ohio University David A. Symbolic interactionism is a perspective employed, explicitly and implicitly, by communication scholars and others within the social sciences and humanities. Rose Kennedy kept the family strongly united with frequent family gatherings (Patterson and Fagen 2020). Our chapter explores the contributions of symbolic interactionism as a theoretical perspective in sociological studies of emotions. He questions George Herbert Meads predication of symbolic interaction as being based on sociation, which is the general consensual pursuit of cooperate social relations. In a sense, they are saying I want my social mobility back or I dont want others to be rising above me with their own social mobility. On the other hand, those on the bottom may make the claim that upward mobility has no effect on others at the top, but relationally, this is not the case. Economists would like to apply restricted exchange to all types of social exchange (e.g., Gary Beckers rational account of marriages and partnerships, and also sociobiological theories that see couples maximizing their gene pools for reproduction). Ones and the others alternatives are measured by the number of alternatives times their value, which is the value of the alternative times its probability. Nonetheless, Athens does present symbolic interaction with an initial approach to power, which this theory sorely needs. First, Helen Hilton marries a musician who then becomes a factory worker. The whole process of oppressive othering is linked to highly charged emotions on the part of both the oppressors and the subordinates. They have deference and may have shame, but they seek to avoid these emotions by building negative subcultures where they are accepted with their deficiencies. The firm of Wilson and Wilson become quite successful, and eventually the younger brothers and two children who become lawyers then expand the business to six other states. Their internalizations are highly manipulative and can often be violent because they are located closest to the boundary between high and low status, and they know it. 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